The History of India

3,500 BCE O.S. – 30 Jan 1948139 items

empiresindia

Mohenjo-daro: the Great Bath, with the citadel mound behind, 2014. Photo: Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From the Indus cities to independence, c. 3300 BCE–1947

Five thousand years of the subcontinent, from the brick cities of the Indus valley to the midnight of 14–15 August 1947, when British India became two states and millions of people found themselves on the wrong side of a line. The zoom runs from millennia, where the Harappan and Vedic dates are honest ranges of a century or more, down to single days and, on the night of independence, to minutes.

Empires as bands, and not only the northern ones

Every dynasty that held a large part of the subcontinent is a band: Maurya, Gupta and Mughal, but also the Satavahanas and Chalukyas of the Deccan, the Pallavas and Cholas of the Tamil south, the Palas of Bengal, the Ahoms of Assam, Vijayanagara and the Bahmani sultans, the Marathas and Mysore. They overlap because they coexisted: in 1500 the map shows the Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara, Bengal and the Ahoms side by side.

Calendars

Dates before 1582 are in the proleptic Julian calendar, as the histories give them; later ones are Gregorian. Four dates of the sultans and Mughals are entered in the hijri calendar of the Persian chronicles: the founding of the Bahmani Sultanate (24 Rabiʿ al-Akhir 748), Babur’s victory at Panipat (8 Rajab 932, from his own memoirs), Akbar’s enthronement (2 Rabiʿ al-Thani 963) and Aurangzeb’s death (28 Dhu al-Qaʿda 1118). The night of independence is timed in Indian Standard Time.

How to read it

Tags to follow one thread: south india, battles, religion, architecture, science, trade, women, colonialism and independence.
The map runs from Peshawar to Assam and from the Indus mouths to the tip of Kerala, with a Chola raid on the Malay peninsula.
Violence and famine are told plainly, with the range of death tolls the sources give and who gives them.

The ancient chapters follow Upinder Singh and Romila Thapar, the Indus cities Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, the sultans and Mughals Richard Eaton and John F. Richards, and the last two centuries William Dalrymple, Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal and Yasmin Khan.

Items

c. 3,300 BCE O.S. – c. 1,300 BCE O.S.
The Harappan civilisation
2,000 years · The main area of Harappan settlement (approximate)
c. 2,600 BCE O.S. – c. 1,900 BCE O.S.
Mature Harappan: the age of the cities
700 years · The main area of Harappan settlement (approximate)
c. 2,500 BCE O.S.
Mohenjo-daro’s Great Bath
The Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
c. 2,300 BCE O.S.
Ships from Meluhha moor at Akkad
Lothal, Gujarat
c. 2,200 BCE O.S.
Dholavira’s signboard
Dholavira, Khadir island, Kutch
c. 1,900 BCE O.S.
The cities empty
The Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
c. 1,500 BCE O.S. – c. 500 BCE O.S.
The Vedic age
1,000 years · The Punjab, the Rigveda’s land of seven rivers
c. 1,500 BCE O.S. – c. 1,200 BCE O.S.
The hymns of the Rigveda
300 years · The Punjab, the Rigveda’s land of seven rivers
c. 600 BCE O.S. – c. 321 BCE O.S.
The Mahajanapadas
≈ 279 years · Rajagriha (Rajgir), the first Magadhan capital
c. 480 BCE O.S.
The Buddha’s awakening at Bodh Gaya
Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya
c. 400 BCE O.S.
Pāṇini’s grammar of Sanskrit
Shalatula, Gandhara, Pāṇini’s traditional home
c. 300 BCE O.S. – c. 300 CE O.S.
The Sangam age in the Tamil south
≈ 599 years · Madurai, the Pandya capital
c. May 326 BCE O.S.
Alexander at the Hydaspes
The Hydaspes (Jhelum), between Jhelum and Jalalpur
c. 321 BCE O.S. – c. 185 BCE O.S.
The Maurya Empire
136 years · Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
c. 300 BCE O.S.
Megasthenes describes Pataliputra
Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
c. 268 BCE O.S. – c. 232 BCE O.S.
Ashoka
36 years · Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
c. 261 BCE O.S.
The Kalinga war
Kalinga, around Dhauli; the battlefield is not known
c. 250 BCE O.S.
The lion capital at Sarnath
Sarnath, the Deer Park
c. 100 BCE O.S. – c. 225 CE O.S.
The Satavahanas
324 years · Pratishthana (Paithan), on the Godavari
c. 50 BCE O.S.
Kharavela’s Hathigumpha inscription
Hathigumpha, Udayagiri hills, Bhubaneswar
c. 30 CE O.S. – c. 240 CE O.S.
The Kushan Empire
210 years · Mathura
c. 60 CE O.S.
Roman ships at Muziris
Pattanam, the probable site of Muziris
c. 127 CE O.S.
Kanishka comes to the throne
Purushapura (Peshawar)
320 CE O.S. – c. 550 CE O.S.
The Gupta Empire
230 years · Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
c. 350 CE O.S.
Samudragupta’s pillar inscription
Allahabad Fort, Prayagraj
c. 400 CE O.S.
The iron pillar
The Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi
c. 405 CE O.S.
Faxian travels in the Gupta realm
Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
c. 450 CE O.S. – c. 1200 O.S.
Nalanda
750 years · Nalanda Mahavihara
c. 460 CE O.S. – c. 480 CE O.S.
Ajanta’s great phase
20 years · Ajanta caves
499 CE O.S.
Aryabhata writes the Aryabhatiya
Pataliputra, by the Kumrahar site, Patna
543 CE O.S. – 753 CE O.S.
The Chalukyas of Badami
≈ 210 years · Vatapi (Badami)
c. 575 CE O.S. – c. 897 CE O.S.
The Pallavas of Kanchi
≈ 322 years · Kanchipuram
606 CE O.S. – 647 CE O.S.
Harsha
≈ 41 years · Kanyakubja (Kannauj)
c. 625 CE O.S.
Pulakeshin II turns Harsha back
The Narmada valley; the field is not known
628 CE O.S.
Brahmagupta’s rules for zero
Bhillamala (Bhinmal)
c. 715 CE O.S.
The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
Shore Temple, Mamallapuram
c. 750 CE O.S. – c. 1160 O.S.
The Pala Empire
410 years · Vikramashila, the Palas’ great monastery
c. 765 CE O.S.
The Kailasa temple at Ellora
Kailasa temple (Cave 16), Ellora
c. 848 CE O.S. – 1279 O.S.
The Chola Empire
≈ 431 years · Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur
1010 O.S.
The Brihadisvara temple is consecrated
Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur
c. 1022 O.S.
The Chola who took the Ganga
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
1025 O.S.
Rajendra’s navy raids Srivijaya
Kadaram (Kedah), Malay peninsula
Jan 1026 O.S.
Mahmud of Ghazni sacks Somnath
Somnath temple, Prabhas Patan
1192 O.S.
The second battle of Tarain
Tarain (Taraori), near Thanesar
c. 1199 O.S.
The Qutb Minar is begun
The Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi
1206 O.S. – 8 Rajab 932 AH
The Delhi Sultanate
≈ 319 years · Delhi
1228 O.S. – 24 Feb 1826
The Ahom kingdom
≈ 597 years · Sivasagar, around the Ahom capitals
1236 O.S.
Razia becomes sultan
Delhi
c. 1250 O.S.
The Sun Temple at Konark
Sun Temple, Konark
1303 O.S.
Alauddin Khalji holds Delhi against the Mongols
Siri Fort, Delhi
1311 O.S.
Malik Kafur reaches Madurai
Madurai, the Pandya capital
1327 O.S.
Muhammad bin Tughluq moves his capital to Daulatabad
Daulatabad (Deogiri) fort
1336 O.S. – 1646 O.S.
The Vijayanagara Empire
310 years · Vijayanagara (Hampi)
24 Rabi' al-Thani 748 AH – 1527 O.S.
The Bahmani Sultanate
≈ 179 years · Gulbarga (Kalaburagi) fort
1352 O.S. – 12 Jul 1576 O.S.
The Bengal Sultanate
≈ 224 years · Adina Mosque, Pandua
17 Dec 1398 O.S.
Timur sacks Delhi
Delhi
c. 1400 O.S.
Madhava’s infinite series
Irinjalakuda, usually taken for Sangamagrama
1469 O.S.
Guru Nanak is born
Talwandi (Nankana Sahib)
1472 O.S.
Mahmud Gawan’s madrasa at Bidar
Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan, Bidar
1490 O.S. – Sep 1687
The Deccan sultanates
≈ 197 years · Golconda fort, Hyderabad
20 May 1498 O.S.
Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut
Kappad, north of Calicut
1509 O.S. – 1529 O.S.
Krishnadevaraya
20 years · Vijayanagara (Hampi)
25 Nov 1510 O.S.
Albuquerque takes Goa
Old Goa
8 Rajab 932 AH – 21 Sep 1857
The Mughal Empire
≈ 331 years · Agra Fort
8 Rajab 932 AH
The first battle of Panipat
The plain north of Panipat
17 Mar 1527 O.S.
The battle of Khanwa
Khanwa, west of Fatehpur Sikri
17 May 1540 O.S. – 23 Jul 1555 O.S.
The Sur interlude
≈ 15 years, 2 months · Tomb of Sher Shah Suri, Sasaram
2 Rabi' al-Thani 963 AH
Akbar is enthroned at Kalanaur
Kalanaur, by the Takht-i-Akbari
5 Nov 1556 O.S.
The second battle of Panipat
The plain north of Panipat
24 Jun 1564 O.S.
Rani Durgavati dies fighting
Near Jabalpur, the Narai nala
23 Jan 1565 O.S.
The battle of Talikota
Rakkasagi–Tangadagi, on the Krishna, south of Talikota
1571 O.S. – 1585
Fatehpur Sikri
≈ 13 years, 11 months · Fatehpur Sikri
1574 O.S.
Tulsidas begins the Ramcharitmanas
Ayodhya
1591
The Charminar
Charminar, Hyderabad
1611 – 1627
Nur Jahan
16 years · Agra Fort
1632 – 1653
The Taj Mahal is built
≈ 21 years · Taj Mahal, Agra
1648
Shahjahanabad and the Red Fort
Red Fort, Delhi
10 Nov 1659
Shivaji kills Afzal Khan at Pratapgad
Pratapgad fort
1671
The battle of Saraighat
Saraighat, on the Brahmaputra near Guwahati
6 Jun 1674 – 3 Jun 1818
The Maratha state
≈ 144 years · Shaniwar Wada, Pune
6 Jun 1674
Shivaji is crowned at Raigad
Raigad fort
Nov 1675
Guru Tegh Bahadur is executed
Gurdwara Sis Ganj, Chandni Chowk, Delhi
Sep 1687
Golconda falls
Golconda fort, Hyderabad
1699
The Khalsa is founded at Anandpur
Takht Sri Kesgarh Sahib, Anandpur
28 Dhu al-Qa'da 1118 AH
Aurangzeb dies
Ahmednagar
1734
Jai Singh’s observatory at Jaipur
Jantar Mantar, Jaipur
22 Mar 1739
Nader Shah sacks Delhi
Chandni Chowk, Shahjahanabad
10 Aug 1741
The battle of Colachel
Colachel
23 Jun 1757 – 1 Nov 1858
Company rule
≈ 101 years · Calcutta, around Fort William and Government House
23 Jun 1757
The battle of Plassey
Palashi (Plassey)
1761 – 4 May 1799
Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
≈ 37 years, 10 months · Seringapatam (Srirangapatna) fort
14 Jan 1761
The third battle of Panipat
The plain north of Panipat
22 Oct 1764
The battle of Buxar
Buxar
1767 – 13 Aug 1795
Ahilyabai Holkar rules Malwa
≈ 28 years · Ahilya Fort, Maheshwar
1769 – 1770
The Bengal famine of 1769–1770
≈ 1 year · Bengal and Bihar
22 Mar 1793
The Permanent Settlement
Calcutta, around Fort William and Government House
4 May 1799
Tipu Sultan dies at Seringapatam
Seringapatam (Srirangapatna) fort
7 Jul 1799 – 29 Mar 1849
The Sikh Empire
≈ 49 years, 8 months · Lahore Fort
3 Jun 1818
The last Peshwa surrenders
4 Dec 1829
Sati is banned
Calcutta, around Fort William and Government House
2 Feb 1835
Macaulay’s minute on education
Calcutta, around Fort William and Government House
1837
James Prinsep reads Ashoka
Asiatic Society, Park Street, Calcutta
16 Apr 1853
The first passenger train
Bori Bunder to Thane
9 May 1857 – 8 Jul 1858
The uprising of 1857
≈ 1 year, 1 month · The main theatre of the rising, Delhi to Lucknow and Jhansi (approximate)
10 May 1857
The sepoys rise at Meerut
Meerut cantonment
11 May 1857
Bahadur Shah Zafar is proclaimed
Red Fort, Delhi
Jun 1857
Neill’s reprisals at Allahabad
Allahabad
27 Jun 1857
The killings at Cawnpore
Cawnpore (Kanpur), Satichaura Ghat and the Bibighar
20 Sep 1857
Delhi is retaken
Red Fort, Delhi
18 Jun 1858
Lakshmibai dies near Gwalior
Kotah-ki-Serai, near Gwalior
1 Nov 1858 – 15 Aug 1947
The British Raj
≈ 88 years
1 Nov 1858
The Crown takes over
Allahabad
28 Dec 1885
The Indian National Congress is founded
Bombay
16 Oct 1905
Bengal is partitioned
Calcutta, around Fort William and Government House
30 Dec 1906
The Muslim League is founded
Ahsan Manzil, Dacca
12 Dec 1911
The capital moves to Delhi
Coronation Park, Delhi
13 Nov 1913
Tagore wins the Nobel Prize
Santiniketan
13 Apr 1919
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar
Dec 1925
Sarojini Naidu presides over the Congress
Cawnpore (Kanpur)
28 Feb 1928
The Raman effect
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Bowbazar
12 Mar 1930 – 6 Apr 1930
The Salt March
25 days · The Salt March, Sabarmati to Dandi
23 Mar 1931
Bhagat Singh is hanged
Lahore Central Jail (now Shadman)
24 Sep 1932
The Poona Pact
Yerwada Central Jail, Poona
23 Mar 1940
The Lahore Resolution
Minto Park (Iqbal Park), Lahore
8 Aug 1942
Quit India
Gowalia Tank (August Kranti) Maidan, Bombay
1943 – 1944
The Bengal famine of 1943
≈ 1 year · Bengal and Bihar
18 Feb 1946
The Royal Indian Navy mutiny
Bombay harbour and HMIS Talwar
16 Aug 1946
Direct Action Day in Calcutta
The Maidan, Calcutta
9 Dec 1946
The Constituent Assembly meets
Constitution Hall (Central Hall), Council House, New Delhi
3 Jun 1947
The partition plan is announced
Constitution Hall (Central Hall), Council House, New Delhi
18 Jul 1947
The Indian Independence Act
Aug 1947 – Dec 1947
Partition: the killings and the great migration
4 months, 2 days · The Punjab, cut by the Radcliffe line
14 Aug 1947
Pakistan comes into being
Sind Assembly building, Karachi
14 Aug 1947, 17:30 – 15 Aug 1947, 03:00
Independence night in Delhi
9 hours, 30 minutes · Constitution Hall (Central Hall), Council House, New Delhi
c. 14 Aug 1947, 18:00
“A tryst with destiny”
Constitution Hall (Central Hall), Council House, New Delhi
14 Aug 1947, 18:30
Midnight: India is independent
Constitution Hall (Central Hall), Council House, New Delhi
17 Aug 1947
The Radcliffe line is published
26 Oct 1947
Kashmir accedes to India
Srinagar airfield
30 Jan 1948
Gandhi is assassinated
Birla House, New Delhi